Flags and Conditional Jumps
The processor status flags and conditional jump logic is the most complex part of the NQSAP computer. It consumes a large number of the available microcode ROM outputs.
Most of ths design was prototyped, but a clocking and ROM output problem caused the flag registers to load unpredictably. The Flags design has been fully implemented in the NQSAP-PCB build.
The flags and conditional jump design has the following features:
- Four flags that match the behavior of the 6502’s Carry, Zero, oVerflow, and Negative flags
- Hardware-controlled conditional jump instructions require no ROM address lines
- An instruction’s microcode can alter any or all of the flags independently
- Flags can be read or written to the bus, allowing save and restore of the processor status
Differences from SAP-1
The Ben Eater SAP-1 supports two flags, Zero and Carry, using a single 74LS173 register to store the values. This means that any instruction that alters flags needs to provide a value for both flags. The conditional jump logic of SAP-1 design is implemented in microcode by wiring the status flag register outputs to address lines of the microcode ROMs.
The NQSAP design addresses the following SAP-1 limitations:
- Flags cannot be set independently
- Limited number of ROM address lines available to expand to more flags
- Changing flag values causes the control ROM outputs to briefly glitch to unknown values
Hardware Overview
The left side of the schematic contains logic to calculate values input to the flags based on the ALU and other sources. The 74LS157 selector in the center allows the flags to be loaded from the calculation hardware or loaded from the value on the bus. The flag values are stored in the pair of 74LS74 flip flops in the center of the drawing. On the right side of the schematic, the outputs of the flags go to a 74LS245 that allows them to be placed on the bus. The outputs also go to a 74LS151 8-to-1 selector that controls the conditional jump.
The NQSAP data bus is used as an input for flag calculations on the left side of the drawing, a direct input to the flag registers in the center, and an output source for the flags on the right.
The star of this design is the 74LS151 8-to-1 selector. It is used to replace conditional logic for the Carry and oVerflow flag calculations and also to select a flag source for the conditional jump.
The gates at the bottom of the drawing that generate the B-CLK and ALU-S0 signals are not part of the flags design but they use some of the spare logic gates. These will likely be moved to other pages as more schematics are drawn.
Flag Registers
Each of the four flags is stored in its own D flip flop rather than a single register chip for all flags. This is implemented as a pair of 74LS74 dual D flip flops. Each flag has its own Flag Load (FC,FZ,FV,FN) signal from the Control ROMs that is ANDed with the master clock (CLK) to load new data into a flag register. This allows selective updating of only the flags that are appropriate for each instruction. For example, the Add with Carry (ADC) instruction sets all four flags, but the Increment Memory (INC) sets only the Zero and Negative flags.
The outputs of the flag registers go to the conditional jump circuit and also to a 74LS245 8-bit transceiver that is connected to the bus. This allows the all of the flag bits to be read as a single byte of processor status on the bus. This capability is used by the Push Processor Status (PSP) instruction to save flag values to memory.
The inputs to the flag registers are connected to a 74LS157 quad 2-to-1 selector. This selects from either the bus or the individual flag calculation hardware as the source when loading new values into the flags. The Pull Processor Status (PLP) instruction uses the bus read capability to restore previously saved values of the flags.
Setting and Clearing
The Reset inputs of the flag registers are tied to the master reset (RST) signal so that the flags are all cleared at reset. The Set inputs are not used.
The CLC, CLV, and SEC instructions clear or set individual flags. This requires no additional hardware or ROM control signals. The NQSAP’s ALU has modes that will output all-ones or all-zeros to the bus, regardless of the ALU inputs. The flag registers can be loaded from the bus, so putting zeroes on the bus and then selectively loading individual flags allows instructions to clear flags. Similarly, flags are set using the ALU all-ones and loading from the bus.
Conditional Jump
The conditional jump determination is done in hardware, with a circuit that drives the LOAD enable of the Program Counter (PC). Unlike the SAP-1, the flag values are not connected to address lines in the Control ROM and the microcode cannot execute differently dependent on flag values. The choice was made to allow for more flags, because ROM address lines are in short supply. The other benefit is reduced ROM output glitching because changes in flags don’t cause a new address to be set on the microcode ROM in the middle of an instruction execution.
The inverted and non-inverted values of the four flags are fed into the inputs of a 74LS151 8-to-1 selector. Because the flip flops provide both Q and not-Q outputs, the selector can choose to jump on a flag set or flag clear value with no additional inverters or gates needed. The output of the selector drives the LOAD line of the PC. The enable line of the selector is controlled by the Conditional Jump Enable (JE) signal from the microcode ROM. If the JE signal is not asserted then the values at the selector inputs are ignored and the PC LOAD is not enabled.
Before going to the PC LOAD input, the output of the conditional jump selector is NORed with the Write PC (WP) signal from the register selectors. This allows the control ROM to do an unconditional jump and it also allows the Loader to do self-tests on the PC.
The three select inputs that determine the flag for the conditional jump are tied to the three most significant output bits of the Instruction Register (IR). This encodes the flag selection into the opcode of the conditional jump instructions and does not require any additional control lines from the Control ROM. It also simplifies the microcode because all of the conditional jump instructions will have identical microcode. This is similar to the operation selection for the ALU, which used the lower five bits of an opcode to select an ALU function so that ALU instructions with the same addressing mode shared common microcode.
All conditional jump instructions are coded as unconditional jumps in the ROM with the JE signal asserted. If the selected flag (or the selected inverted flag) is not HIGH, the jump steps are executed but the LOAD line will not go active and the instruction will have no effect.
The downside to this is that a jump not taken will effectively be a long NOP instruction, using more cycles than other approaches might need. It might be possible for the conditional jump logic to drive the Next Instruction (N) signal instead of the PC LOAD signal, allowing a flag condition to terminate a jump instruction early.
Flag Calculations
The Negative flag is simply the MSB of the data bus. Because it is wired to the bus instead of the ALU output, the Negative flag can be updated on non-ALU operations such as register to register transfers or shift register instructions.
The Zero flag uses a 74HCT688 8-bit comparator to test for zero. This saves a chip over the AND/OR circuit used in the Ben Eater SAP-1 computer but is functionally equivalent. One other difference from the SAP-1 is that the zero test, like the negative test, is performed on the value on the bus instead of the output value of the ALU.
The oVerflow flag is calculated using a 74LS151 8-to-1 selector as described in 74181 with V_Flag on 6502.org. The MSB of the ALU operands in H and B, as well as the MSB of the ALU result, are used as inputs. Two of the ALU operation select lines are used to differentiate between addition and subtraction.
The Carry flag has several inputs that can set it. For arithmetic operations, it uses the carry output of the 74LS181 ALU chip. For shift operations, it is set by the LSB or the MSB value of the H register. Another of the ever-present 74LS151s chooses from the different inputs as selected by the C0 and C1 bits from the control ROMs.
Any or all of the flags can also be loaded from the bus. This allows for a “pull flags” instruction to restore the set of flags. This capability is also leveraged for the individual flag set and clear instructions, like CLC, CLV, and SEC. The ALU chip has an operation that puts all ones on the bus and another that puts out all zeroes. By putting the ALU in one of these modes and enabling individual flag load lines, a flag can be set or cleared by the microcode.
Carry Flag Usage by the ALU and H Register
In addition to its use in the conditional jump instructions, the Carry flag output is also used as an input to the ALU (L) and the sHift (H) Register. Depending on the operation, the carry supplied to the ALU and H registers can be either a hard-coded one or zero, the value of the Carry flag, or the inverted value of the Carry flag. The inversion is needed because the Carry flag uses positive logic, with a one indicating a carry is present, but the ALU uses negative logic, where a zero indicates that a carry should be used in the operation being performed.
Two control signals from the ROM are used to force the carry flag output HIGH or LOW or just pass it through unchanged. The initial design used three different types of gates, but applying De Morgan to the AND gate simplified the design to just two NOR gates. The two versions of the circuit are shown below.
The input value to the Carry flag after an instruction also varies by instruction. Its value may came from either the ALU or the H register. In addition, the CLC and SEC instructions can explicitly clear the flag using a value from the bus.
The table below shows the usage of the carry flag for each instruction.
| Operation | Register | Input to Register | Input to Carry Flag |
|---|---|---|---|
| ADC | ALU | ~C | ~ALU-carry-out |
| ASL | H | 0 | H-Q7 |
| DEC | ALU | 1 | flag not changed |
| INC | ALU | 0 | flag not changed |
| LSR | H | 0 | H-Q0 |
| ROL | H | C | H-Q7 |
| ROR | H | C | H-Q0 |
| SBC | ALU | ~C | ~ALU-carry-out |
The input to the Carry flag is described in the Flag Calculations section.
The output of the Carry flag to the ALU and H register is controlled by the CC and CS lines from the Control ROM. These two lines can force a clear or set value or just pass through the current value of the Carry flag. Note that the ALU uses negative logic for the carry flag, so the inverted value of the Carry flag is used. The inverter is placed after the CC and CS logic, so asserting CS will present a LOW to the ALU and CC will present a HIGH.
Control ROM Summary
The table below shows the Control ROM lines related to flags.
| Signal | Description |
|---|---|
| FC | write Carry flag |
| FZ | write Zero flag |
| FV | write oVerflow flag |
| FN | write Negative flag |
| FB | load flags from the bus |
| JC | jump conditional |
| C0 | carry source select 0 |
| C1 | carry source select 1 |
| CC | ALU carry input clear |
| CS | ALU carry input set |
Bill of Materials
- 74LS02 quad 2-input NOR gate (1)
- 74LS06 hex inverter (1)
- 74LS08 quad 2-input AND gate (1)
- 74LS75 dual D flip flop (2)
- 74LS151 8-to-1 selector (3)
- 74LS157 quad 2-to-1 selector (1)
- 74LS283 4-bit adder (2)
- 74LS245 8-bit bus transceiver (1)
- 74HCT688 8-bit comparator (1)
Other References
Question for all 74ls181 alu people on reddit led to the design of the oVerflow flag.
How to add a decremental and incremental circuit to the ALU ? on reddit inspired the idea to drive the PC load line from the flags instead of running the flags through the microcode.
Opcodes and Flag decoding circuit on reddit has a different approach to conditional jumps using hardware. Instead of driving the LOAD line of the PC, the circuit sits between the Instruction Register and the ROM and conditionally jams a NOP or JMP instruction to the microcode depending on the state of the flags. One interesting part of the design is that the opcodes of the jump instructions are arranged so that the flag of interest can be determined by bits from the IR. NQSAP already did something similar with the ALU select lines, so the concept was used again for the conditional jump select lines.