ALU
The NQSAP-PCB computer uses a pair of 74LS181 4-bit ALU chips instead of the simple adder/subtractor circuit in the SAP-1. The advantage to this is a greatly increased set of operations available, including increment/decrement as well as bitwise AND OR, and XOR.
The disadvantage to the use of an ALU chip is that the 74181 requires 6 control lines to select an operation, rather than the single ADD/SUBTRACT needed for the simple adder.
In the NQSAP-PCB design, the Mode bit and the 4 Operation Select bits are hard-wired to the Instruction Register, so that the opcode of the instruction directly determines the operation selected on the ALU. This saves the need for 5 additional control lines from the microcode ROMs. It also makes the microcode for all ALU operations identical, so they can be generated programmatically in the Arduino code. Because the Mode and Select lines are wired to the Instruction Register, only the Carry-in signal is provided by the microcode ROMs.
Rather than providing the outputs of the Instruction Register on the bus or requiring an interconnect between the IR and ALU, the ALU module keeps its own copy of the IR in a local register that loads on the WI signal. Five bits of this register are used by the ALU, and three more are passed to the Flags Module for conditinal jump selection.
The inputs to the ALU are the A Register (H) and the B register. All ALU instructions write their result to the A register.
Note that the subtract and compare instructions both need the ALU to be in subtract mode. Because the ALU select lines are hard-wired to the IR, there are only eight opcodes available that put the ALU in the correct mode. To create the sixteen different opcodes that are needed for all of the addressing mode combinations of the subtract and compare instructions, a NOR gate is placed between the inverted IR output and the ALU S0 input. The other NOR input is the microcode ROM LF (aLu Force) line. When this is asserted, the ALU S0 is forced to zero. This is used to create a new set of eight subtract mode instructions by setting the ALU select bits to 0110 when the low IR bits are 0111. The ALU operation for 0111 would normally be A and not B, which isn’t useful.
In addition to the 74181 ALUs, the NQSAP ALU module needs a few more chips. As with other read registers in the NQSAP, a 74HCT245 bus transceiver is used to selectively place the ALU result on the bus.
Note that the ALU result is a read-only register.
74181 ALU operations used by NQSAP
| M | Cn | S3 | S2 | S1 | S0 | Operation |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | A plus 1 |
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | zero |
| 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | A minus B |
| 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | all ones |
| 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | A plus B |
| 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | 0 | A plus A [left shift] |
| 0 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | A minus 1 |
| 1 | x | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | not A |
| 1 | x | 0 | 1 | 1 | 0 | A xor B |
| 1 | x | 1 | 0 | 1 | 0 | B |
| 1 | x | 1 | 0 | 1 | 1 | A and B |
| 1 | x | 1 | 1 | 1 | 0 | A or B |
The ALU all-zero bits and all-one bits operations are used in the microcode to get zeros or ones onto the bus for the flag set and clear operations.
The B operation is no longer used. It was originally used by the CALL instruction to read B for temporary storage. The B register was later redesigned to add its own bus transceiver to allow direct read access.
Flags
Most of the flag condition detection circuitry is present on the ALU module, rather than on the Flags module. Ths was done because the Flags module was already densly populated and the ALU module had free space. It was easy enough to place the three flag detection outputs on the interconnect between the boards.
See the Flag Calculations section of the Flags page for a description of the flag detection hardware.
Zero flag
The 74181 ALU does not have an output to indicate a zero result from an operation so a 74HCT688 8-bit comparator is used to detect all zeroes on the bus. The ALU does have an A=B bit that can be used for comparison operations, but it is not used in the NQSAP design.
Using the bus instead of the ALU output for zero-detect means that it can also be used with non-ALU operations like register loads or transfers.
Carry flag
Using the carry flag output (Cn+4) as a processor flag is not straightforward to understand because the logic state used to indicate an overflow changes depending on the operation. For the addition operations, a logic LOW indicates carry occurred, but logic HIGH is used to indicate borrow needed for subtraction. See the 74181 ALU notes section for an explanation of why the chip does this.
| Selects | Operation | Cn+4 on overflow |
|---|---|---|
| LLLL | A + 1 | L |
| LHHL | A - B | H |
| HLLH | A + B | L |
| HHLL | A + A | L |
| HHHH | A - 1 | H |
The NQSAP addition and subtraction operations are modeled after the 6502 processor. An addition with carry instruction will produce A+B when carry is clear and A+B+1 when carry is set. The carry flag will be set at the completion of the operation if the addition carried into the non-existent ninth bit.
A subtraction with carry operation will produce A-B-1 when the carry bit is clear and A-B when the carry is set. The carry flag will be cleared at the completion of the operation if the subtraction required a borrow from the non-existent ninth bit.
This usage is consistent with the 74181 ALU, but the use of the flag is inverted because the 74181 uses an active low carry signal. The Cn+4 carry out signal from the high ALU is inverted to provide the 6502-like flag.
oVerflow flag
Bill of Materials
- 74HCT02 quad 2-input NOR gates (1)
- 74HCT151 8-to-1 selector (2)
- 74LS181 4-bit Arithmetic Logic Unit (2)
- 74HCT245 8-bit bus transceiver (1)
- 74HCT377 8-bit register (1)
- 74HCT688 8-bit comparator (1)